Disney cartoons and the Japanese cartoon industry are 'two of the most prolific producers,' and 'two animated cartoon worlds which influenced audiences more than any other' (113). In this piece, the period between 1928-1942 at Disney is focussed on, whereas in Japan the 1960's boom in animation is explored. (This essay makes frequent references to childhood, as Raffaelli closely links it to the cartoons' ideal audience.)
Animation has an 'ability to adapt to all forms of language' (114) which is why I think it is the perfect medium with which to tell a japanese-located folk tale and re-locate it to another time period and geographic setting, the form symbolizes the tales ability to traverse space and culture.
Firstly Raffaelli looks at Disney's rise in popularity and its innovation int he animated world. He notes the form of characters drawn - 'an assemblage of rubber-like tubes: two for the legs, two for the arms and a bigger one for the trunk' (114). Rubber-hose characters 'draw upon the conventions of silent film comedy' (114) for their bodily communication. In black and white film of early Disney films, the characters had 'black skin' which 'fascinated the contrast with the lighter background' (114). The film in an hommage to childhood, where objects serve puposes other than their own. The adult 'is represented by the big, vulgar, and evil cat' who works but never plays, like adult responsibility.
Disney was one of the first to subscribe to the idea of making characters that audiences could 'identify' with, and so feel greater loyalty towards: which helped Disney to become unique amongst other animators and amass a following. In order to become even more successful, Disney wanted to break tradition and be innovative, by making more serious works, which eventually led to features such as Snow White. He did away with rubber-hose creatures, creating instead 'expressive and credible characters' (115). 'Disney sought to bring animation to its maturity, to widen its vocabulary, its expressive potential' (115). Though still acting within the playworld of animation, he was now credited and given attention along the lines of 'real' film makers.
Disneyan discourse seems to be both the 'inspiration and the consequence' of the American model (117). It allows the 'exaltation of the individual in the apotheosis of the community' (117). Anything is possible for anyone, as long as they are industrious and jump at our lucky strikes. 'In the feature films the wicked characters are killed' (118). For Disney, everything 'must be maifest, expressed, resolved: there is no room for the unexplored, the obscure' (119). There is no risk that the wicked will ever triumph; no room for subversion. The purpose is to create a sense of comfort and unity in the audience. In this case, itis easy to unite against 'evil.' Disney's films are meant to be viewed as a collective, in a cinema, so viewers 'stimulate one another' (120).
Disney himself maintained a paternal role within the workings of his studio. He rewarded hard work; was stingy with compliments, and acted as supervisor (118-119).
Next is the analysis of Japanese cartoons, distinctly seperate and contrasting to Disney. A prototype and classic of Japanese cartoons, Heidi of the Alps was made in 1974 and was one of the first to be broadcast in Europe. It contains elements that are typical of anime: an orphaned heroine and family-less characters (124). The creators based it on a Swiss novel, but removed any of the religious (christian) themes, 'to make the story comprehensible to audience in their own country' (126).
The first television animated series were based upon manga (comics) from Japan, and influenced by the artwork in these; such aesthetics from Goast Man & Onward to Victory became highly influential to the future of animation (126-127).
The animation industry was born 'the under the influence' of the American (127). Many studios could not imitate the aesthetics nor the success of Disney, so they had to diverge into their own route. This birthed the 'subjectivity' of the Japanese cartoon, which used character's thoughts or a narrator's comments as voice over.
To save money, instead of drawing movements, the drawings were moved (127), and each drawing could be help up to 5 or 6 frames. This gave a less fluid look than the American style. 'Thus, a character gazing at some terrible situation with a terrified look on hisface will have a drop of sweat fixed on his forehead and his mouth wide open for a long time' (127). 'The reason, obviously, is to save time and work' but it has a unique effect on the story. It looks almost like an 'animated comic-strip' (129). 'Japan cartoon uses a different language' of narrative.
Unlike Disney's aim of unifying viewers in cinema environments, the japanese animators went in another direction entirely. The industry became prominent at the same time more people were aquiring home tv-sets, and so they found a market in television shows instead of feature films, and in a solitary audience rather than a collective one (130). They appealed to 'lonely children' with working parents, and so often featured 'stories of orphans and robots' (130).
Unlike Disney, with its safety and comfort offered and presumption that goodness will always triumph, the anime ise a lot more violence, and show more ambiguity about the winners int he struggle of good vs. evil (133-134). Fear in anime is a real, and much relied on concept. Scenes of mass destruction and devestation are common (134).
Reference:
Raffaelli, L. (1997). Disney, Warner Bros. and Japanese Animation. In: J. Pilling, ed., A Reader in Animation Studies, 1st ed. Sydney: John Libbey, pp.112 - 136.
